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Rocks","hot-rocks","article/hot-rocks",{"_uid":557,"date":558,"tags":559,"editor":560,"content":570,"excerpt":578,"featured":50,"reporter":763,"_editable":767,"component":768,"seo_title":553,"categories":769,"visibility":776,"author_company":49,"featured_image":777,"seo_description":578,"author_full_name":49,"author_job_title":49,"formattedDate":782,"formattedArticleDate":783},"f9f31f1f-4492-4034-9a13-793bf95bb170","2016-07-21 00:00",[],[561],{"slug":562,"name":563,"content":564},"matthew-bird","Matthew Bird",{"job_title":565,"image":566,"bio":568,"linkedin":569},"Senior Editor - Supply Chains & Data Visualisation",{"filename":567},"https://a.storyblok.com/f/287943243085208/512x512/14738033ec/matthew-bird.jpeg","Matthew writes, edits and produces content for Benchmark Intelligence and Benchmark Source across the whole mine to grid supply chain. He also acts as a liaison to the press. He has a PhD in electrochemistry from the University of Nottingham.","https://www.linkedin.com/in/birdmatthew/",{"type":571,"content":572},"doc",[573,580,585,590,595,600,605,610,615,620,625,630,635,642,647,652,657,662,667,672,677,682,687,692,697,702,707,712,715,720,725,730,735,740,745,750,755,760],{"type":574,"attrs":575,"content":576},"paragraph",{"textAlign":49},[577],{"text":578,"type":579},"Among its various uses, high purity quartz is an integral component in solar’s manufacturing chain, used to create the crucibles in which silicon ingots are produced as the basis for solar PV. Its fortunes are tied to a renewable that looks set to help shape the future of energy.","text",{"type":574,"attrs":581,"content":582},{"textAlign":49},[583],{"text":584,"type":579}," By Simon Rees",{"type":574,"attrs":586,"content":587},{"textAlign":49},[588],{"text":589,"type":579},"Quartz has been exploited by humans since prehistoric times. The Roman naturalist and philosopher Pliny the Elder contemplated clear quartz and argued it must be a form of petrified ice, created over an immense length of time.",{"type":574,"attrs":591,"content":592},{"textAlign":49},[593],{"text":594,"type":579},"Given the limitations of Ancient science, Pliny’s assessment was noteworthy for at least recognising some kind of geological force had been at work.",{"type":574,"attrs":596,"content":597},{"textAlign":49},[598],{"text":599,"type":579},"His audience was curious because the material was prized for making beautiful vessels, jewels and pendants. It commanded high prices that only the noblest houses could afford.",{"type":574,"attrs":601,"content":602},{"textAlign":49},[603],{"text":604,"type":579},"Today, quartz in rock or sand plays a critical role in almost every facet of life, with a plethora of applications stretching from sandpaper to fertilisers, cement to speciality lenses.",{"type":574,"attrs":606,"content":607},{"textAlign":49},[608],{"text":609,"type":579},"But less well known among the general public is the role of high purity quartz.",{"type":574,"attrs":611,"content":612},{"textAlign":49},[613],{"text":614,"type":579},"High purity quartz sand comprises more than 99.995% silicon dioxide (SiO2), with the higher grades used to create crucibles needed by manufacturers in the semiconductor and solar photovoltaic (PV) industries.",{"type":574,"attrs":616,"content":617},{"textAlign":49},[618],{"text":619,"type":579},"It also plays a role in the manufacture of tubing for high-temperature lighting, while slightly lower grades are used in making parts like rods, wafer carriers and windows for semiconductor and solar photovoltaic (PV) manufacturers.",{"type":574,"attrs":621,"content":622},{"textAlign":49},[623],{"text":624,"type":579},"“Most people haven’t paid much attention to high purity quartz sand because they don’t look beyond silicon metal to the full supply chain necessary for solar PV manufacture,” HPQ Materials CEO Stuart Jones told Benchmark Mineral Intelligence.",{"type":574,"attrs":626,"content":627},{"textAlign":49},[628],{"text":629,"type":579},"“The high purity quartz sand used to make the crucible is every bit as critical as the need for polysilicon in the manufacture of solar PV and semiconductors. In short, no high purity sand means no solar PV and no semiconductors,” he added.",{"type":574,"attrs":631,"content":632},{"textAlign":49},[633],{"text":634,"type":579},"But the market lacks readily-available data or statistics on production, uptake or pricing points. It is opaque to say the least, lacking the quality most sought after in clear quartz by the Romans: transparency.",{"type":636,"attrs":637,"content":639},"heading",{"level":638,"textAlign":49},3,[640],{"text":641,"type":579},"Shifting sand",{"type":574,"attrs":643,"content":644},{"textAlign":49},[645],{"text":646,"type":579},"Speaking with Benchmark, Dorfner Anzaplan managing director Reiner Haus estimated total volumes of high purity quartz sand sold internationally stood between 50,000 and 100,000 tonnes per year (tpy).",{"type":574,"attrs":648,"content":649},{"textAlign":49},[650],{"text":651,"type":579},"Prices are noteworthy, albeit hard to specify because the major producers are privately-held and sell on a contract basis.",{"type":574,"attrs":653,"content":654},{"textAlign":49},[655],{"text":656,"type":579},"Purity and demand levels are important price determinates, with the material sold primarily to Asia-based crucible makers, most of whom are located in China.",{"type":574,"attrs":658,"content":659},{"textAlign":49},[660],{"text":661,"type":579},"High purity quartz sand pricing starts at $5,000/tonne, according to Haus, with the majority of material sold between $6,000 and $7,000/tonne. Ultimate-quality high purity quartz sand commands more than $10,000/ tonne.",{"type":574,"attrs":663,"content":664},{"textAlign":49},[665],{"text":666,"type":579},"Jones noted that solar-grade is currently being sold at around $6,500-$7,000/tonne and was following an increasing trend.",{"type":574,"attrs":668,"content":669},{"textAlign":49},[670],{"text":671,"type":579},"High purity quartz sand is non-reactive in high temperatures, thermally stable and an ideal source material to make crucibles.",{"type":574,"attrs":673,"content":674},{"textAlign":49},[675],{"text":676,"type":579},"This is done by processing the high purity quartz sand and then creating fused-quartz crucibles by using specialist moulds.",{"type":574,"attrs":678,"content":679},{"textAlign":49},[680],{"text":681,"type":579},"The crucibles are the receptacles in which polysilicon is melted and through which monocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon ingots are produced.",{"type":574,"attrs":683,"content":684},{"textAlign":49},[685],{"text":686,"type":579},"The polysilicon is 99.99999% pure metal, most often produced by using the Siemens method.",{"type":574,"attrs":688,"content":689},{"textAlign":49},[690],{"text":691,"type":579},"It has lower melting point compared with the crucibles that can withstand temperatures of up to 1,750 degrees C. Typical operational temperatures for ingot manufacture are between 1,200 and 1550 degrees C.",{"type":574,"attrs":693,"content":694},{"textAlign":49},[695],{"text":696,"type":579},"Total impurities in solar-grade quartz must not exceed 20-40 parts per million (ppm) and can include iron oxides, alkalis, heavy minerals or other contaminants.",{"type":574,"attrs":698,"content":699},{"textAlign":49},[700],{"text":701,"type":579},"Impurities must be minimal to avoid their transference into the silicon, which could retard a solar’s module’s eventual efficiency.",{"type":574,"attrs":703,"content":704},{"textAlign":49},[705],{"text":706,"type":579},"“The purer the crucible, the less problems arising from impurities introduced into the silicon melt,” Haus said.",{"type":574,"attrs":708,"content":709},{"textAlign":49},[710],{"text":711,"type":579},"Manufacturing of multicrystalline silicon for solar PV requires large rectangular crucibles, while monocrystalline silicon utilises rounded crucibles made from purer solar-grade quartz.",{"type":574,"attrs":713,"content":714},{"textAlign":49},[],{"type":574,"attrs":716,"content":717},{"textAlign":49},[718],{"text":719,"type":579},"“The highest purity is required by Czochralski process [for monocrystalline production], while slightly less pure quartz is acceptable for crucibles used to make multicrystalline,” Haus said.",{"type":574,"attrs":721,"content":722},{"textAlign":49},[723],{"text":724,"type":579},"The Czochralski process uses polysilicon with dopants added. A rod-mounted seed crystal is then grown within this molten mix and slowly withdrawn under rotation to form a long monocrystalline ingot, often called a boule.",{"type":574,"attrs":726,"content":727},{"textAlign":49},[728],{"text":729,"type":579},"This phase is called “crystal pulling” and the largest producers run numerous banks of furnaces at once.",{"type":574,"attrs":731,"content":732},{"textAlign":49},[733],{"text":734,"type":579},"Boules are sliced at the top and sides before being cut into blocks. Multicrystalline ingots are sliced into bricks after being removed from their crucibles.",{"type":574,"attrs":736,"content":737},{"textAlign":49},[738],{"text":739,"type":579},"Both blocks and bricks are then wire-cut to produce wafers that are further processed to make solar cells. The crucibles cannot be re-used because of impurities risk and are discarded.",{"type":574,"attrs":741,"content":742},{"textAlign":49},[743],{"text":744,"type":579},"The manufacturing process can also have some variance as ingot producers use specialist in-house proprietary technology.",{"type":636,"attrs":746,"content":747},{"level":638,"textAlign":49},[748],{"text":749,"type":579}," Diamonds in the rough",{"type":574,"attrs":751,"content":752},{"textAlign":49},[753],{"text":754,"type":579},"Quartz in rock and sand is the second mostabundant mineral on the planet. But finding the right material for high purity quartz sand status requires a specific type of deposit with levels that can deliver the minimum 99.995% SiO2.",{"type":574,"attrs":756,"content":757},{"textAlign":49},[758],{"text":759,"type":579},"Such deposits are rare but found globally.",{"type":574,"attrs":761,"content":762},{"textAlign":49},[],[764],{"slug":562,"name":563,"content":765},{"job_title":565,"image":766,"bio":568,"linkedin":569},{"filename":567},"\u003C!--#storyblok#{\"name\": \"article\", \"space\": \"\", \"uid\": \"f9f31f1f-4492-4034-9a13-793bf95bb170\", \"id\": \"\"}-->","article",[770,773],{"slug":771,"name":772},"batteries","Batteries",{"slug":774,"name":775},"critical-minerals","Critical Minerals","private",{"id":49,"alt":778,"name":778,"focus":778,"title":778,"source":778,"filename":779,"copyright":778,"fieldtype":780,"meta_data":781,"is_external_url":51},"","https://a.storyblok.com/f/287943243085208/81ece5cb41/bm-screen-shot-2016-07-21-at-205057.png","asset",{"alt":778,"title":778,"source":778,"copyright":778},"Jul 21, 2016","21st July 2016",[],[],1792773947665]