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BATTERY RECYCLING: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN RAMPING UP TO MEGA SCALE RECYCLING","lithium-ion-battery-recycling-challenges-and-opportunities-in-ramping-up-to-mega-scale-recycling","article/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-challenges-and-opportunities-in-ramping-up-to-mega-scale-recycling",{"_uid":557,"date":558,"tags":559,"editor":560,"content":570,"excerpt":879,"featured":50,"reporter":880,"_editable":884,"component":885,"seo_title":553,"categories":886,"visibility":901,"author_company":49,"featured_image":902,"seo_description":879,"author_full_name":49,"author_job_title":49,"formattedDate":907,"formattedArticleDate":908},"c4c07f07-152a-46d5-b1e8-67f381f5748f","2019-01-28 00:00",[],[561],{"slug":562,"name":563,"content":564},"didi-bostock","Didi Bostock",{"job_title":565,"image":566,"bio":568,"linkedin":569},"Editor - Energy Transition & Economics",{"filename":567},"https://a.storyblok.com/f/287943243085208/512x512/2c5ca5c1a3/didi-bostock.jpeg","Didi is the Energy Transition & Economics Editor at Benchmark, covering a broad range of markets across the energy transition. His remit spans from downstream sectors such as BESS and EVs, through to midstream such as new technologies and battery production, to upstream critical minerals mining. He also leads on financial analysis across these supply chains, alongside in-depth policy analysis.\n","https://www.linkedin.com/in/didi-bostock-656342198/",{"type":571,"content":572},"doc",[573,580,585,590,595,600,607,612,617,622,627,634,639,644,651,656,661,666,671,678,683,688,693,700,705,710,715,720,725,730,735,742,747,752,757,762,767,772,777,782,789,794,799,804,809,814,819,824,829,834,839,844,849,854,859,864,869,874],{"type":574,"attrs":575,"content":576},"paragraph",{"textAlign":49},[577],{"text":578,"type":579},"As the costs of producing lithium ion batteries have dropped their use has increased dramatically. But it’s estimated that only 5% of lithium ion batteries are currently recycled. In this feature Ajay Kochhar, Co-founder, President and CEO of Li-Cycle, explores the barriers to lithium ion recycling and developments in processing technology.","text",{"type":574,"attrs":581,"content":582},{"textAlign":49},[583],{"text":584,"type":579},"As the world trends towards electrification, exponential growth continues in the use of lithium-ion (li-ion) batteries, from the automotive industry, stationary energy storage (e.g. for renewables), and consumer electronics.",{"type":574,"attrs":586,"content":587},{"textAlign":49},[588],{"text":589,"type":579},"The consistent improvement and cost reduction of li-ion battery technology has strengthened the momentum behind electro-mobility. Li-ion batteries are electrifying modern transportation from e-bikes and e-scooters, to passenger vehicles, semi-trailer trucks, and even planes in some cases.",{"type":574,"attrs":591,"content":592},{"textAlign":49},[593],{"text":594,"type":579},"Rapidly falling unit costs ($/kWh) are also increasingly enabling the use of li-ion batteries in grid energy storage and renewable energy projects.",{"type":574,"attrs":596,"content":597},{"textAlign":49},[598],{"text":599,"type":579},"Considering the multitude of li-ion battery megafactories being developed globally and the current and near-term limitations on li-ion battery life, the world will be faced with a growing ‘tsunami’ of spent li-ion batteries that will need to be appropriately handled. Driven by electro-mobility applications, the volume of li-ion battery cells being sold is set to surge.",{"type":601,"attrs":602,"content":604},"heading",{"level":603,"textAlign":49},2,[605],{"text":606,"type":579},"Barriers, Challenges, and Opportunities to Battery Recycling",{"type":574,"attrs":608,"content":609},{"textAlign":49},[610],{"text":611,"type":579},"Presently, there are a multitude of challenges existing within the li-ion battery recycling industry which historically have prevented the widespread of implementation of a safe, sustainable, and economically attractive recycling solution for li-ion batteries across the globe.",{"type":574,"attrs":613,"content":614},{"textAlign":49},[615],{"text":616,"type":579},"COLLECTION RATES",{"type":574,"attrs":618,"content":619},{"textAlign":49},[620],{"text":621,"type":579},"To understand what drives an inefficient or efficient end-of-lifecycle supply chain, the electronic waste industry is an important benchmark. It is also important to assess if there are any parallels with spent li-ion batteries, which are a subset of e-waste products and a rapidly growing product stream in other uses (e.g. in electric vehicles).",{"type":574,"attrs":623,"content":624},{"textAlign":49},[625],{"text":626,"type":579},"During the next 7-10 years, portable batteries are projected to comprise the majority of the end-of-life li-ion batteries in need of recycling globally, with EV batteries becoming a larger portion of the market from approximately 2028 onwards.",{"type":574,"attrs":628,"content":629},{"textAlign":49},[630,632],{"text":631,"type":579},"Due to the significant differences in collections between portable consumer electronic batteries and EV/high voltage li-ion batteries, understanding the supply chain and end-of-life pathways",{"text":633,"type":579},"currently associated with small format batteries is critical in the years preceding the EV takeover of global li-ion battery recycling market share, given that these small format batteries will provide the majority of the value available in end-of-life li-ion batteries in the near and medium term.",{"type":574,"attrs":635,"content":636},{"textAlign":49},[637],{"text":638,"type":579},"Roughly three quarters of individuals in North America now own a smartphone. According to a study by Business Insider, American consumers use their mobile phones for approximately 23 months before upgrading. Thereafter, used mobile phones have a variety of end-of-lifecycle fates.",{"type":574,"attrs":640,"content":641},{"textAlign":49},[642],{"text":643,"type":579},"According to Fairphone, approximately 1.6 billion phones are estimated to be simply left at home and not enter end-of-lifecycle supply chains. There is also a substantial reuse market globally where these products are modified, refurbished, and sold to make a profit. In some cases (e.g. depending on the device condition), smartphones can enter into formal and informal e-waste supply chains.",{"type":574,"attrs":645,"content":646},{"textAlign":49},[647,649],{"text":648,"type":579},"It is estimated that the total value of all raw material present in e-waste globally was USD $55 billion in 2016. According to a study by ArsTechnica, approximately 20% of the e-waste in 2016 was documented to be collected and",{"text":650,"type":579},"properly recycled. The balance 80% included e-waste that was traded, recycled, or dumped under inferior conditions.",{"type":574,"attrs":652,"content":653},{"textAlign":49},[654],{"text":655,"type":579},"The graph above illustrates the value, distinguished by metal or material, that is lost each year because of improper disposal of electronic waste.",{"type":574,"attrs":657,"content":658},{"textAlign":49},[659],{"text":660,"type":579},"Mapping to the li-ion battery recycling industry, there are some important takeaways from the data surrounding the e-waste industry. The historical problems within the e-waste industry have been driven by incentives for financial gain via undesirable end-of-lifecycle pathways (i.e. resulting in negative environmental and/or human health impacts) and a lack of consistent regulation.",{"type":574,"attrs":662,"content":663},{"textAlign":49},[664],{"text":665,"type":579},"As a result, the e-waste industry has often followed the cheapest disposal pathways in the past. However, developing nations are now implementing more stringent legislation and enforcement to limit the hazards associated with improper e-waste disposal.",{"type":574,"attrs":667,"content":668},{"textAlign":49},[669],{"text":670,"type":579},"Currently, it is estimated that approximately 5% of li-ion batteries are collected for recycling (i.e. not reuse) globally, with some jurisdictions (e.g. some member states of the European Union) having more efficient portable battery collection rates of >20%.",{"type":574,"attrs":672,"content":673},{"textAlign":49},[674,676],{"text":675,"type":579},"Similar to the trends",{"text":677,"type":579},"identified in the e-waste industry, these inefficient collection rates are indicative of substantial gaps existing in the li-ion supply chain, specifically when batteries reach the end-of-lifecycle stage.",{"type":574,"attrs":679,"content":680},{"textAlign":49},[681],{"text":682,"type":579},"In the context of li-ion battery recycling, it is imperative that generators have low cost, proximal, and technologically advanced recycling methods, in order to avoid the historical challenges in the e-waste industry.",{"type":574,"attrs":684,"content":685},{"textAlign":49},[686],{"text":687,"type":579},"RESOURCE RECOVERY TECHNOLOGY AND RECOVERY RATES",{"type":574,"attrs":689,"content":690},{"textAlign":49},[691],{"text":692,"type":579},"Once li-ion batteries reach recycling facilities today, the incumbent recycling technology uses high-temperature processing (i.e. >1,000°C, also known as smelting, a pyrometallurgical method) to recycle li-ion batteries. Smelting typically recovers 30-40% of the constituent materials in li-ion batteries. The residual 60-70% is either volatilised, cleaned and emitted to the atmosphere, or ends up in solid waste (i.e. slag).",{"type":574,"attrs":694,"content":695},{"textAlign":49},[696,698],{"text":697,"type":579},"Smelting",{"text":699,"type":579},"specifically targets the recovery of the base metals in li-ion batteries – cobalt, nickel and copper – with only proportions recovered thereof. Critical materials such as lithium are not economically recoverable via smelting. Low recoveries result in an impartially closed li-ion battery supply chain loop.",{"type":574,"attrs":701,"content":702},{"textAlign":49},[703],{"text":704,"type":579},"Counter to the existing pyrometallurgical technology typically used in the processing of end-of-life li-ion batteries today, there is a proprietary, patent-pending mechanical and hydrometallurgical (wet-chemistry) process that allows for recovery rates of 80-100% of all battery constituent materials.",{"type":574,"attrs":706,"content":707},{"textAlign":49},[708],{"text":709,"type":579},"SUPPLY CHAIN TRANSPARENCY",{"type":574,"attrs":711,"content":712},{"textAlign":49},[713],{"text":714,"type":579},"The need for recycling li-ion batteries at ‘mega’ scale is further compounded by the opportunity to recovery critical materials such as cobalt and lithium that may otherwise experience both extensive supply deficits in the near term as well as serious concerns regarding the transparency of their production and supply chain.",{"type":574,"attrs":716,"content":717},{"textAlign":49},[718],{"text":719,"type":579},"For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) accounts for more than 60% of global cobalt supplies. Some of the artisanal stream of cobalt production in the DRC has been documented to involve child labour and some of it controlled by insurgent militias. Moreover, 98% of cobalt is mined as a by-product of copper and nickel, and hence cobalt supply is often unable to respond to rapid changes in demand.",{"type":574,"attrs":721,"content":722},{"textAlign":49},[723],{"text":724,"type":579},"Vehicle and battery manufacturers committed to the transition towards electrification are looking to secure a long-term supply of cobalt; however, the DRC-centric and inelastic supply dynamics of cobalt are difficult challenges to overcome.",{"type":574,"attrs":726,"content":727},{"textAlign":49},[728],{"text":729,"type":579},"By 2020, li-ion batteries are forecast to account for 60% of annual global production of cobalt. As battery and vehicle manufacturers ramp up their operations globally, cobalt supply has had trouble rapidly responding to demand.",{"type":574,"attrs":731,"content":732},{"textAlign":49},[733],{"text":734,"type":579},"Although there are a variety of companies exploring new primary mining sources of cobalt, it will likely take years to bring any new discovery into production. Manufacturers have sought long-term supplies of cobalt; however, the inelastic supply dynamics of cobalt have proven difficult to overcome.",{"type":574,"attrs":736,"content":737},{"textAlign":49},[738,740],{"text":739,"type":579},"To mitigate risks and ensure high standards of social responsibility, manufacturers are actively looking to ensure provenance associated with DRC-sourced cobalt supply,",{"text":741,"type":579},"while some are looking to diversify away from the region.",{"type":574,"attrs":743,"content":744},{"textAlign":49},[745],{"text":746,"type":579},"Could the recycling of li-ion batteries mitigate the current and near-term cobalt supply challenges? In short, yes – by 2025, li-ion battery recycling could meet approximately 20% of the forecasted global demand for cobalt. In turn, li-ion battery recycling will reduce the social and environmental impacts of artisanal mining in the DRC. Moreover, recycling can mitigate drastic price swings in cobalt and other critical materials, as well as the reliance on mining and refining into the future.",{"type":574,"attrs":748,"content":749},{"textAlign":49},[750],{"text":751,"type":579},"ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS",{"type":574,"attrs":753,"content":754},{"textAlign":49},[755],{"text":756,"type":579},"Recycling li-ion batteries at scale is a fundamental step in preventing them from reaching landfills and averting artisanal/small-scale recycling from causing even more negative environmental and human health impacts.",{"type":574,"attrs":758,"content":759},{"textAlign":49},[760],{"text":761,"type":579},"With an estimated 5% of li-ion batteries currently reaching recycling facilities globally, many are either being dangerously stockpiled or often become landfilled waste. Landfilled batteries have a greater opportunity to leach toxic heavy metals (e.g. nickel, manganese) into the surrounding environment.",{"type":574,"attrs":763,"content":764},{"textAlign":49},[765],{"text":766,"type":579},"These heavy metals can eventually make their way into our water systems and through the food chain, if left unaddressed. Artisanal recycling approaches (e.g. burning, uncontrolled washing with acid) typically lack environmental controls and are unsafe. Small-scale and informal recycling frequently pollutes the environment and causes serious human health risks in the process.",{"type":574,"attrs":768,"content":769},{"textAlign":49},[770],{"text":771,"type":579},"Relative to the incumbent resource technology for li-ion batteries (i.e smelting and refining), mechanical and hydrometallurgical (wet-chemistry) processing has a net environmental benefit due to reduced and cleaner air emissions.",{"type":574,"attrs":773,"content":774},{"textAlign":49},[775],{"text":776,"type":579},"This process produces no primary off-gas/effluent gas streams that require significant cleaning prior to emission. Effluent gas streams from this process do not contain any heavy metals nor potentially harmful constituents such as SOx, which is typically produced by the same base smelters that are utilized to recycle li-ion batteries.",{"type":574,"attrs":778,"content":779},{"textAlign":49},[780],{"text":781,"type":579},"LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES HEALTH AND SAFETY",{"type":574,"attrs":783,"content":784},{"textAlign":49},[785,787],{"text":786,"type":579},"Since 1991, 225 separate incidents occurred involving the combustion of lithium batteries",{"text":788,"type":579},"on airlines. Thermal runaway, which is a term for an uncontrollable exothermic reaction that emits large amounts of heat, can occur in li-ion batteries when damaged or short circuited.",{"type":574,"attrs":790,"content":791},{"textAlign":49},[792],{"text":793,"type":579},"Disasters from uncontrolled thermal runaway can be devastating, even when caused by portable/small format li-ion batteries. For example, Rumpke’s recycling facility in Cincinnati (a general materials recovery facility/MRF) experienced 6 fires in 2016 alone due to consumers disposing of their batteries improperly.",{"type":574,"attrs":795,"content":796},{"textAlign":49},[797],{"text":798,"type":579},"LITHIUM-ION BATTERY AND THERMAL RUNAWAY FUNDAMENTALS",{"type":574,"attrs":800,"content":801},{"textAlign":49},[802],{"text":803,"type":579},"When considering the dangers of a li-ion battery cell, its fundamental workings and structure must be understood. A li-ion battery cell consists of the following:",{"type":574,"attrs":805,"content":806},{"textAlign":49},[807],{"text":808,"type":579},"To produce electricity, an oxidation reaction at the anode, releasing electrons. Simultaneously, a reduction reaction occurs at the cathode, allowing the cathode to receive the electrons released by the anode, forming an electrical circuit.",{"type":574,"attrs":810,"content":811},{"textAlign":49},[812],{"text":813,"type":579},"The anode and the cathode are isolated from each other via the separator, but over time, separators have the potential to wear down. Breaching of the separator causes high amounts of current to flow directly between the anode and cathode, short-circuiting the cell and producing tremendous amounts of trapped thermal energy.",{"type":574,"attrs":815,"content":816},{"textAlign":49},[817],{"text":818,"type":579},"At the onset of thermal runaway, battery cells heat in seconds from room temperature to approximately 700°C, eventually breaking down the components of the electrolyte, such as methane, ethane, and ethene, into flammable and toxic gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen gas.",{"type":574,"attrs":820,"content":821},{"textAlign":49},[822],{"text":823,"type":579},"The cathode begins to decompose, releasing oxygen. When the flammable electrolyte gases react with oxygen in the presence of heat, combustion occurs. The risk for explosion increases as the pressure in the cell builds.",{"type":574,"attrs":825,"content":826},{"textAlign":49},[827],{"text":828,"type":579},"Li-ion batteries have a dual chemical and electrical hazard, including the chemical hazards listed in the table above.",{"type":574,"attrs":830,"content":831},{"textAlign":49},[832],{"text":833,"type":579},"The United Nations classifies li-ion batteries as Class 9 Dangerous Goods, due to the dual hazard properties associated with their chemical and electrical properties. When handled without the proper controls, the risk of li-ion battery thermal runaway (i.e. leading to fire and possibly explosion) increases.",{"type":574,"attrs":835,"content":836},{"textAlign":49},[837],{"text":838,"type":579},"Similarly, stockpiling li-ion batteries in an uncontrolled environment can increase the risk of thermal runaway. Complying with the recycling legislation and regulations that surround li-ion batteries is essential to ensure their safe transport and disposition. Therefore, the appropriate handling of spent li-ion batteries through robust recycling supply chains at scale is necessary to ensure public safety.",{"type":574,"attrs":840,"content":841},{"textAlign":49},[842],{"text":843,"type":579},"LITHIUM-ION BATTERY SAFETY COMPARED TO OTHER ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGY",{"type":574,"attrs":845,"content":846},{"textAlign":49},[847],{"text":848,"type":579},"Although it is important to be aware of the specific safety risks associated with li-ion batteries, technology cannot be assessed in a vacuum. The graph below puts into perspective the relative energy density between example energy storage mediums. Evidently, li-ion batteries have a much lower energy release potential compared to fuel that powers most of our current vehicles (i.e. gasoline).",{"type":574,"attrs":850,"content":851},{"textAlign":49},[852],{"text":853,"type":579},"Additionally, the wide use of li-ion batteries has led to continuous advancements of the mechanical and electrical design of the battery. Protection systems such as current control, heat protection, and temperature management have been implemented, and li-ion battery standards are enforced to prevent and mitigate hazards by international organizations such as the United Nations (UN), International Electrochemical Commission (IEC), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).",{"type":574,"attrs":855,"content":856},{"textAlign":49},[857],{"text":858,"type":579},"LITHIUM ION RECYCLING ROLE IN THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY",{"type":574,"attrs":860,"content":861},{"textAlign":49},[862],{"text":863,"type":579},"Li-ion batteries will continue to electrify our world, now and into the foreseeable future. As a key driver of the transition away from a carbon-based economy, li-ion batteries are integral to the opportunity to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.",{"type":574,"attrs":865,"content":866},{"textAlign":49},[867],{"text":868,"type":579},"However, to ensure a truly positive impact over the lifecycle of li-ion batteries, we must ensure a closed-loop system is in place to safely handle and recycle spent li-ion batteries at scale. This will enable the reintegration of critical battery materials into the li-ion battery supply chain and the broader economy, while preventing negative environmental and safety impacts.",{"type":574,"attrs":870,"content":871},{"textAlign":49},[872],{"text":873,"type":579},"Li-ion rechargeable batteries are increasingly powering our world in automotive, industrial/utility/residential energy storage, and consumer electronic applications. The world needs improved technology and supply chain innovations to better recycle these batteries, and to meet the rapidly growing demand for critical and scarce battery-grade materials.",{"type":574,"attrs":875,"content":876},{"textAlign":49},[877],{"text":878,"type":579},"Mechanical and hydrometallurgical processing used to recycle li-ion batteries will maximise the recovery of cobalt and other critical materials through recycling li-ion batteries, due to unparalleled recovery rate of up to 100% of all materials. Going forward, li-ion recycling will be a key element of the growing international movement towards zero carbon technologies as part of the circular economy.","As the costs of producing lithium ion batteries have dropped their use has increased dramatically. But it’s estimated that only 5% of lithium ion batteries are currently recycled. In this feature Ajay Kochhar, Co-founder, President and CEO of Li-Cycle, explores the barriers to lithium ion recycling and developments in processing technology. As the world trends […]",[881],{"slug":562,"name":563,"content":882},{"job_title":565,"image":883,"bio":568,"linkedin":569},{"filename":567},"\u003C!--#storyblok#{\"name\": \"article\", \"space\": \"\", \"uid\": \"c4c07f07-152a-46d5-b1e8-67f381f5748f\", \"id\": \"\"}-->","article",[887,890,893,895,898],{"slug":888,"name":889},"batteries","Batteries",{"slug":891,"name":892},"critical-minerals","Critical Minerals",{"slug":894,"name":8},"lithium",{"slug":896,"name":897},"recycling","Recycling",{"slug":899,"name":900},"sustainability","Sustainability","private",{"id":49,"alt":903,"name":903,"focus":903,"title":903,"source":903,"filename":904,"copyright":903,"fieldtype":905,"meta_data":906,"is_external_url":51},"","https://a.storyblok.com/f/287943243085208/56f283edf6/bm-istock-526918827-e1548683948453.jpg","asset",{"alt":903,"title":903,"source":903,"copyright":903},"Jan 28, 2019","28th January 2019",[],[],1792773943306]