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earths: setting the tone","rare-earths-setting-the-tone","article/rare-earths-setting-the-tone",{"_uid":557,"date":558,"tags":559,"editor":560,"content":570,"excerpt":849,"featured":50,"reporter":850,"_editable":854,"component":855,"seo_title":553,"categories":856,"visibility":865,"author_company":49,"featured_image":866,"seo_description":849,"author_full_name":49,"author_job_title":49,"formattedDate":871,"formattedArticleDate":872},"c3e8778b-a5b6-4945-91ca-fd0f24028d20","2016-07-20 00:00",[],[561],{"slug":562,"name":563,"content":564},"matthew-bird","Matthew Bird",{"job_title":565,"image":566,"bio":568,"linkedin":569},"Senior Editor - Supply Chains & Data Visualisation",{"filename":567},"https://a.storyblok.com/f/287943243085208/512x512/14738033ec/matthew-bird.jpeg","Matthew writes, edits and produces content for Benchmark Intelligence and Benchmark Source across the whole mine to grid supply chain. He also acts as a liaison to the press. He has a PhD in electrochemistry from the University of Nottingham.","https://www.linkedin.com/in/birdmatthew/",{"type":571,"content":572},"doc",[573,580,585,590,595,600,605,610,615,620,625,630,635,640,645,650,655,660,665,672,677,682,687,692,695,700,705,710,715,720,725,730,735,740,743,748,753,758,763,768,773,778,783,788,793,798,803,808,813,816,821,826,831,836,841],{"type":574,"attrs":575,"content":576},"paragraph",{"textAlign":49},[577],{"text":578,"type":579}," Rare earth elements have risen to become the most critical of all minerals.","text",{"type":574,"attrs":581,"content":582},{"textAlign":49},[583],{"text":584,"type":579}," Deemed the highest risk raw material to do business with by the EU and US, these specialist products have changed the face of modern society from sparking the advent of colour TV to constructing super-strong magnets for electric vehicles and government weapon systems.",{"type":574,"attrs":586,"content":587},{"textAlign":49},[588],{"text":589,"type":579}," Clint Cox profiles today’s uses for rare earths and the questions to ask when developing new sources of these critical elements.",{"type":574,"attrs":591,"content":592},{"textAlign":49},[593],{"text":594,"type":579},"Rare earth elements (REE) play a special role in society.",{"type":574,"attrs":596,"content":597},{"textAlign":49},[598],{"text":599,"type":579},"These elements are mined together, yet their end uses and markets are extremely diverse.",{"type":574,"attrs":601,"content":602},{"textAlign":49},[603],{"text":604,"type":579},"It took almost 100 years from their discovery in the late 1700s to their first commercial application in the late 1800s.",{"type":574,"attrs":606,"content":607},{"textAlign":49},[608],{"text":609,"type":579},"Innovation and the discovery of new applications for rare earths exploded in the mid-to-late 20th century and they are now found in communication, transportation, entertainment, heavy industry, in household appliances, and throughout the global supply chain.",{"type":574,"attrs":611,"content":612},{"textAlign":49},[613],{"text":614,"type":579},"The supply and demand for rare earths is exceedingly difficult to predict, but it is worthwhile to try to understand where the market has been and where it may be headed.",{"type":574,"attrs":616,"content":617},{"textAlign":49},[618],{"text":619,"type":579},"From the early 1960s into the 1980s, the rare earth element industry experienced an incredible renaissance. New rare earth-based applications transformed the world, and the market shifted towards Asia as rare earth resources became readily available from China.",{"type":574,"attrs":621,"content":622},{"textAlign":49},[623],{"text":624,"type":579},"Powerful rare earth permanent magnets made motors and computers smaller and more efficient, rare earth phosphors lit the screens that shifted our focus to a digital world, fiber optic amplifiers dramatically increased the speed and volume of digital communication, rechargeable batteries extended our reach beyond the conventional outlet, and rare earths in fluid cracking catalysts (FCC) and autocatalysts made use of fossil fuels more efficient and cleaner.",{"type":574,"attrs":626,"content":627},{"textAlign":49},[628],{"text":629,"type":579},"These, and a multitude of other additional applications, have been improved and made more efficient over the past few decades, even as China has become the dominant supplier of REEs. Rare earth usage has fluctuated over the past few decades, but the market has generally experienced tremendous growth and changed modern society as we know it.",{"type":574,"attrs":631,"content":632},{"textAlign":49},[633],{"text":634,"type":579},"In 2010, Chinese rare earth export quotas were drastically cut, China and Japan had an island dispute, and rare earth prices subsequently skyrocketed.",{"type":574,"attrs":636,"content":637},{"textAlign":49},[638],{"text":639,"type":579},"This rare earth crisis substantially changed the industry as end users became more efficient in their use of rare earths, recycling efforts increased, and other elements were substituted for REEs in various applications.",{"type":574,"attrs":641,"content":642},{"textAlign":49},[643],{"text":644,"type":579},"Companies outside China decreased their research and development (R&D) efforts utilising rare earths, as a reliable supply of REE material was now in question.",{"type":574,"attrs":646,"content":647},{"textAlign":49},[648],{"text":649,"type":579},"Indeed, some companies will now accept lower product performance in order to avoid REEs and increase the security of their supply chain. This will undoubtedly have an impact on the development of future REE applications.",{"type":574,"attrs":651,"content":652},{"textAlign":49},[653],{"text":654,"type":579},"In 2012, a WTO complaint was filed by Japan, the USA, and the EU. The resolution of that complaint has recently reached fruition as the Chinese government has removed the export quota system and eliminated export duties on REEs. However, China has recently implemented an export licensing system and a new rare earth resource tax, and it continues to maintain a mining quota system.",{"type":574,"attrs":656,"content":657},{"textAlign":49},[658],{"text":659,"type":579},"The government in Beijing is also making great efforts to consolidate the REE industry that exists within China.",{"type":574,"attrs":661,"content":662},{"textAlign":49},[663],{"text":664,"type":579},"While the rare earth industry is being reorganised in China, a number of key rare earth markets are also undergoing substantial change.",{"type":666,"attrs":667,"content":669},"heading",{"level":668,"textAlign":49},3,[670],{"text":671,"type":579}," Phosphors",{"type":574,"attrs":673,"content":674},{"textAlign":49},[675],{"text":676,"type":579},"The phosphor market has endured the most sweeping and far-reaching change of any major rare earth application over the past few years.",{"type":574,"attrs":678,"content":679},{"textAlign":49},[680],{"text":681,"type":579},"LEDs use just a fraction of the grams of REEs per lumen that fluorescent bulbs use, and this burgeoning market is the fastest growing in the lighting sector. Less rare earth phosphors are needed now, and because of this, the market for rare earth phosphors is undergoing substantial contraction, with the effect reaching not only lighting manufacturers, but also producers of heavy rare earth elements (HREE). This shift has meant less market demand for europium, terbium and yttrium.",{"type":666,"attrs":683,"content":684},{"level":668,"textAlign":49},[685],{"text":686,"type":579}," Magnets",{"type":574,"attrs":688,"content":689},{"textAlign":49},[690],{"text":691,"type":579},"NdFeB and SmCo permanent magnets are the absolute mainstay of growth for the rare earth industry. The applications that use these REE magnets are numerous and incredibly varied. In the automobile industry, these smaller motors translate into lighter and more efficient vehicles. In the defense industry, permanent magnets can be used in ways that enhance performance and push boundaries on a variety of weapons systems.",{"type":574,"attrs":693,"content":694},{"textAlign":49},[],{"type":574,"attrs":696,"content":697},{"textAlign":49},[698],{"text":699,"type":579},"Next generation appliances include more features and are becoming smaller, lighter and more efficient thanks to the increased usage of REE magnets. The ever-increasing use of sensors will also translate to more REE magnet usage, as our society looks for more data inputs from automobiles, appliances and machinery.",{"type":574,"attrs":701,"content":702},{"textAlign":49},[703],{"text":704,"type":579},"It is critical to understand that REE magnets are often a small part of a much larger supply chain, and therefore a fraction of the overall cost of the final product sold to a consumer.",{"type":574,"attrs":706,"content":707},{"textAlign":49},[708],{"text":709,"type":579},"For example, neodymium may constitute a substantial portion of a rare earth magnet, but as that magnet is placed in a motor, and that motor may be placed in a car seat, and that seat is part of a system installed in an automobile, the amount of neodymium as a percentage of the final product becomes less impactful.",{"type":574,"attrs":711,"content":712},{"textAlign":49},[713],{"text":714,"type":579},"When the recent crisis began in 2010, the magnet industry moved away from using REE magnets for inexpensive, less critical applications. But as prices dropped, some of these applications are returning to REE magnets. Magnet manufacturers have also become much more efficient in their use of dysprosium (Dy) – in some cases eliminating it altogether. However, as long as dysprosium is readily available, it will probably be used in magnets.",{"type":574,"attrs":716,"content":717},{"textAlign":49},[718],{"text":719,"type":579},"As significant REE magnet patents expired in 2014, the magnet market should expand further with increased competition. For decades, many R&D teams have worked tirelessly in their attempt to replace rare earths in permanent magnets, but REEs continue to offer the superior solution, and therefore this market should continue its robust growth into the future. And while viable substitutes for REE magnets exist for some applications, nothing can currently substitute for the strength of rare earth permanent magnets.",{"type":574,"attrs":721,"content":722},{"textAlign":49},[723],{"text":724,"type":579},"The rare earth elements most often used in magnet applications are praseodymium, neodymium, samarium, terbium, and dysprosium.",{"type":666,"attrs":726,"content":727},{"level":668,"textAlign":49},[728],{"text":729,"type":579}," Glass",{"type":574,"attrs":731,"content":732},{"textAlign":49},[733],{"text":734,"type":579},"Lanthanum in optical glass provides superb clarity in very small lenses that are used in cameras from spy satellites to smartphones.",{"type":574,"attrs":736,"content":737},{"textAlign":49},[738],{"text":739,"type":579},"As our selfie-taking, surveillance society grows, this application and demand should also grow. However, the lanthanum volumes required for this application are relatively low compared to overall output of the lanthanum market supply.",{"type":574,"attrs":741,"content":742},{"textAlign":49},[],{"type":574,"attrs":744,"content":745},{"textAlign":49},[746],{"text":747,"type":579},"Cerium (and other REEs) can be used in glass to block ultra-violet (UV) light. Cerium UV-blocking technology has significant upsides for eyeglasses, automotive glass, lamps and architectural glass. Viable competing technologies do exist, but as there is currently a glut of cerium available to the market and prices are fairly low, this may be an opportune time for glass manufacturers to incorporate this technology on a wider basis.",{"type":666,"attrs":749,"content":750},{"level":668,"textAlign":49},[751],{"text":752,"type":579}," Ceramics",{"type":574,"attrs":754,"content":755},{"textAlign":49},[756],{"text":757,"type":579},"Rare earths in ceramics have a wide variety of applications and excellent market growth potential. Praseodymium, yttrium, and neodymium are used in pigments for colouring ceramics.",{"type":574,"attrs":759,"content":760},{"textAlign":49},[761],{"text":762,"type":579},"Yttrium is the key ingredient in yttriastabilized zirconia (YSZ), which is an extremely durable material with very high corrosion resistance and a hardness almost equal to a diamond. YSZ is used in high pressure valves, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) for turbine blades, and for mechanical parts in high-wear or high-temperature environments. YSZ is also growing in its use for dental implants and in high-end cutlery.",{"type":574,"attrs":764,"content":765},{"textAlign":49},[766],{"text":767,"type":579},"Rare earths are used as a dopant in multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCC), and although very minute amounts are used in each capacitor, this is a fast-growing market with upside potential.",{"type":666,"attrs":769,"content":770},{"level":668,"textAlign":49},[771],{"text":772,"type":579}," Recycling",{"type":574,"attrs":774,"content":775},{"textAlign":49},[776],{"text":777,"type":579},"Recycling has played an increasing role in the REE supply chain since the crisis began in 2010.",{"type":574,"attrs":779,"content":780},{"textAlign":49},[781],{"text":782,"type":579},"For example, the market for cerium polish, experienced extreme stress and underwent significant change over the last half decade.",{"type":574,"attrs":784,"content":785},{"textAlign":49},[786],{"text":787,"type":579},"Recycling efforts to cut usage of cerium polish were successful, and polishes that use other, non-rare earth elements have also been incorporated. The polish industry has since become much more efficient and may use considerably less cerium moving forward.",{"type":666,"attrs":789,"content":790},{"level":668,"textAlign":49},[791],{"text":792,"type":579}," Competition & new markets",{"type":574,"attrs":794,"content":795},{"textAlign":49},[796],{"text":797,"type":579},"There are many possible uses for rare earths, but there is also an entire periodic table of elements providing competition.",{"type":574,"attrs":799,"content":800},{"textAlign":49},[801],{"text":802,"type":579},"For example, nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries were the rechargeable standard for years before lithium-ion (technology quickly gained a sizeable portion of the market.",{"type":574,"attrs":804,"content":805},{"textAlign":49},[806],{"text":807,"type":579},"New technologies can replace current technologies and shift REE demand. The lighting industry is a great example, as the first commercial use of rare earths was the gas mantle which used cerium and thorium. Soon after the incandescent bulb was invented, and went on to displace the gas mantle. Black and white televisions dominated the market, even after the colour version was invented, because colour did not have enough contrast and looked washed out due to the lack of a suitable red phosphor.",{"type":574,"attrs":809,"content":810},{"textAlign":49},[811],{"text":812,"type":579},"It was then discovered that europium was the solution needed to launch the colour TV market. However, as the market for TVs has moved through tube technology, plasma and LCD, LED/LCD, and now OLED, less and less REE phosphor is needed.",{"type":574,"attrs":814,"content":815},{"textAlign":49},[],{"type":574,"attrs":817,"content":818},{"textAlign":49},[819],{"text":820,"type":579},"Many announcements have been made over the years about new and fantastic uses for the rare earths.",{"type":574,"attrs":822,"content":823},{"textAlign":49},[824],{"text":825,"type":579},"These announcements often follow brilliant R&D efforts by scientists and professors, but the products must always prove themselves in the marketplace in order to be successful.",{"type":574,"attrs":827,"content":828},{"textAlign":49},[829],{"text":830,"type":579},"While some new uses prove to be truly industry-shaking – such as the use of europium in colour TVs in the 1960s or the NdFeB magnets of the 1980s – many uses may eventually end up as laboratory curiosities because they are uneconomic or impractical.",{"type":574,"attrs":832,"content":833},{"textAlign":49},[834],{"text":835,"type":579},"Some basic questions to ask when considering the possibilities and impact potential of new REE applications:",{"type":574,"attrs":837,"content":838},{"textAlign":49},[839],{"text":840,"type":579},"While a multitude of new uses have been discovered for rare earths in the past few decades, many of these use very small volumes of material and do not greatly impact the supply.",{"type":574,"attrs":842,"content":843},{"textAlign":49},[844],{"text":845,"type":579,"marks":846}," Contributor: Clint Cox, Founder of Anchor House Inc, a research firm specialising in rare earths.",[847],{"type":848},"italic","Rare earth elements have risen to become the most critical of all minerals. Deemed the highest risk raw material to do business with by the EU and US, these specialist products have changed the face of modern society from sparking the advent of colour TV to constructing super-strong magnets for electric vehicles and government weapon systems. Clint Cox profiles today’s uses for rare earths and the questions to ask when developing new sources of these critical elements.",[851],{"slug":562,"name":563,"content":852},{"job_title":565,"image":853,"bio":568,"linkedin":569},{"filename":567},"\u003C!--#storyblok#{\"name\": \"article\", \"space\": \"\", \"uid\": \"c3e8778b-a5b6-4945-91ca-fd0f24028d20\", \"id\": \"\"}-->","article",[857,860,863],{"slug":858,"name":859},"batteries","Batteries",{"slug":861,"name":862},"critical-minerals","Critical Minerals",{"slug":864,"name":420},"rare-earths","private",{"id":49,"alt":867,"name":867,"focus":867,"title":867,"source":867,"filename":868,"copyright":867,"fieldtype":869,"meta_data":870,"is_external_url":51},"","https://a.storyblok.com/f/287943243085208/61c26d0c9d/bm-screen-shot-2016-07-20-at-162926.png","asset",{"alt":867,"title":867,"source":867,"copyright":867},"Jul 20, 2016","20th July 2016",[],[],1790082854533]